Manufacturing-, Merchandising-, and Service-Sector Companies
We define three sectors of the economy and provide examples of companies in each sector.
We define three sectors of the economy and provide examples of companies in each sector.
- . Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and components and convert them into various finished goods. Examples are automotive companies such as Jaguar, cellular phone producers such as Nokia, food-processing companies such as Heinz, and computer companies such as Toshiba.
- Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without changing their basic form. This sector includes companies engaged in retailing (for example, bookstores such as Barnes and Noble or department stores such as Target), distribution (for example, a supplier of hospital products, such as Owens and Minor), or wholesaling (for example, a supplier of electronic components, such as Arrow Electronics).
- Service-sector companies provide services (intangible products)—for example, legal advice or audits—to their customers. Examples are law firms such as Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz, accounting firms such as Ernst and Young, banks such as Barclays, mutual fund companies such as Fidelity, insurance companies such as Aetna, transportation companies such as Singapore Airlines, advertising agenciessuch as Saatchi & Saatchi, television stations such as Turner Broadcasting, Internet service providers such as Comcast, travel agencies such as American Express, and brokerage firms such as Merrill Lynch.
Types of Inventory
Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and components and convert them into various finished goods. These companies typically have one or more of the following three types of inventory
- Direct materials inventory. Direct materials in stock and awaiting use in the manufacturing process (for example, computer chips and components needed to manufacture cellular phones).
- Work-in-process inventory. Goods partially worked on but not yet completed (for example, cellular phones at various stages of completion in the manufacturing process). This is also called work in progress
- Finished goods inventory. Goods (for example, cellular phones) completed but not yet sold. Merchandising-sector companies purchase tangible products and then sell them without changing their basic form. They hold only one type of inventory, which is products in their original purchased form, called merchandise inventory. Service-sector companies provide only services or intangible products and so do not hold inventories of tangible products.
Commonly Used Classifications of Manufacturing Costs
Three terms commonly used when describing manufacturing costs are direct material costs, direct manufacturing labor costs, and indirect manufacturing costs. These terms build on the direct versus indirect cost distinction we had described earlier, in the context of manufacturing costs.
1. Direct material costs are the acquisition costs of all materials that eventually become part of the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) and can be traced to the cost object in an economically feasible way. Acquisition costs of direct materials include freight-in (inward delivery) charges, sales taxes, and custom duties. Examples of direct material costs are the steel and tires used to make the BMW X5, and the computer chips used to make cellular phones.
2. Direct manufacturing labor costs include the compensation of all manufacturing labor that can be traced to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) in an economically feasible way. Examples include wages and fringe benefits paid to machine operators and assembly-line workers who convert direct materials purchased to finished goods.
3. Indirect manufacturing costs are all manufacturing costs that are related to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) but cannot be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible way. Examples include supplies, indirect materials such as lubricants, indirect manufacturing labor such as plant maintenance and cleaning labor, plant rent, plant insurance, property taxes on the plant, plant depreciation, and the compensation of plant managers. This cost category is also referred to as manufacturing overhead costs or factory overhead costs.
Inventoriable Costs
Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are considered as assets in the balance sheet when they are incurred and that become cost of goods sold only when the product is sold. For manufacturing-sector companies, all manufacturing costs are inventoriable costs. Consider Cellular Products, a manufacturer of cellular phones. Costs of direct materials, such as computer chips, issued to production (from direct material inventory), direct manufacturing labor costs, and manufacturing overhead costs create new assets, starting as work in process and becoming finished goods (the cellular phones).
Inventoriable Costs
Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are considered as assets in the balance sheet when they are incurred and that become cost of goods sold only when the product is sold. For manufacturing-sector companies, all manufacturing costs are inventoriable costs. Consider Cellular Products, a manufacturer of cellular phones. Costs of direct materials, such as computer chips, issued to production (from direct material inventory), direct manufacturing labor costs, and manufacturing overhead costs create new assets, starting as work in process and becoming finished goods (the cellular phones).
Hence manufacturing costs are included in work-in-process inventory and in finished goods inventory (they are “inventoried”) to accumulate the costs of creating these assets. When the cellular phones are sold, the cost of manufacturing them is matched against revenues, which are inflows of assets (usually cash or accounts receivable) received for products or services provided to customers. The cost of goods sold includes all manufacturing costs (direct materials, direct manufacturing labor, and manufacturing overhead costs) incurred to produce them. The cellular phones may be sold during a different accounting period than the period in which they were manufactured. Thus, inventorying manufacturing costs in the balance sheet during the accounting period when goods are manufactured and expensing the manufacturing costs in a later income statement when the goods are sold matches revenues and expenses.
For merchandising-sector companies such as Wal-Mart, inventoriable costs are the costs of purchasing the goods that are resold in their same form. These costs comprise the costs of the goods themselves plus any incoming freight, insurance, and handling costs for those goods. Service-sector companies provide only services or intangible products. The absence of inventories of tangible products for sale means there are no inventoriable costs
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| Exhibit 2-5 |
Period Costs
Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. Period costs, such as marketing, distribution and customer service costs, are treated as expenses of the accounting period in which they are incurred because they are expected to benefit revenues in that period and are not expected to benefit revenues in future periods. Some costs such as R&D costs are treated as period costs because, although these costs may benefit revenues in a future period if the R&D efforts are successful, it is highly uncertain if and when these benefits will occur. Expensing period costs as they are incurred best matches expenses to revenues. For manufacturing-sector companies, period costs in the income statement are all nonmanufacturing costs (for example, design costs and costs of shipping products to customers). For merchandising-sector companies, period costs in the income statement are all costs not related to the cost of goods purchased for resale. Examples of these period costs are labor costs of sales floor personnel and advertising costs. Because there are no inventoriable costs for service-sector companies, all costs in the income statement are period costs. Exhibit 2-5 showed examples of inventoriable costs in direct/indirect and variable/fixed cost classifications for a car manufacturer. Exhibit 2-6 shows examples of period costs in direct/indirect and variable/fixed cost classifications at a bank.
Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. Period costs, such as marketing, distribution and customer service costs, are treated as expenses of the accounting period in which they are incurred because they are expected to benefit revenues in that period and are not expected to benefit revenues in future periods. Some costs such as R&D costs are treated as period costs because, although these costs may benefit revenues in a future period if the R&D efforts are successful, it is highly uncertain if and when these benefits will occur. Expensing period costs as they are incurred best matches expenses to revenues. For manufacturing-sector companies, period costs in the income statement are all nonmanufacturing costs (for example, design costs and costs of shipping products to customers). For merchandising-sector companies, period costs in the income statement are all costs not related to the cost of goods purchased for resale. Examples of these period costs are labor costs of sales floor personnel and advertising costs. Because there are no inventoriable costs for service-sector companies, all costs in the income statement are period costs. Exhibit 2-5 showed examples of inventoriable costs in direct/indirect and variable/fixed cost classifications for a car manufacturer. Exhibit 2-6 shows examples of period costs in direct/indirect and variable/fixed cost classifications at a bank.
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